Constitutional Issues And The Scope And Character Of U.s....

Constitutional Issues and the Scope and Character of U.S. Government 1 Constitutional Issues and the Scope and Character of U.S. Government Britteny Klemm POL303: The American Constitution Tammi Clearfield April 21, 2014 Constitutional Issues and the Scope and Character of U.S. Government 2 Freedom of speech, Barendt (2005) mentioned, is one of the basic rights of any human being. The entitlement to express one’s opinion and view on anything without the fear of being harassed or penalized by the authority is ensured by this act. For many centuries common people were denied this right. Even now many countries prohibit its citizens to practice this fundamental right. USA is one of the countries, which is known for being vocal about civil rights and freedom. Therefore it is no wonder that the country’s constitution has given special attention to Freedom of speech. Freedom of expression and freedom of rights are uttered under same breath. They have subtle differences. The broad definition of right of speech allows an individual to communicate any idea, the medium being his/her body and property to whoever is interested. Freedom of expression additionally includes receiving, passing on and searching for information through any medium. The first amendment shield s the freedom of speech right of the American citizens. Although there are several clauses to this practice, yet USA is one of the countries, which have provided its people with the freedom to put forward theirShow MoreRelatedThe Supremacy Clause Is The Clause That Establishes The Federal Government s Authority Over State Governments1521 Words   |  7 Pages Supremacy Clause Matthew Newkirk Constitutional Law Mr. Timothy Allmond Wiregrass Georgia Technical College November 19, 2015 â€Æ' Abstract The Supremacy Clause is the clause that establishes the federal government’s authority over state governments. The Supremacy Clause is found in the U.S. Constitution in Clause Two of Article Six. This Clause upholds the United States Constitution, federal statutes, and treaties as the supreme law of the land. Federal law’s supremacy applies only if CongressRead MorePrivacy Laws City of Ontario, California, Et Al. V Quon, Et Al. 560 U.S. (2010)1888 Words   |  8 PagesREADING: City of Ontario, California, et al. v Quon, et al. 560 U.S.___(2010) DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: 1. What were the material facts of City of Ontario, California, et al. v Quon, et al. (Ontario v Quon)? ï‚ § Petitioner Ontario (hereinafter City) acquired alphanumeric pagers able to send and receive text messages. Its contract with its service provider, Arch Wireless, provided for a monthly limit on the number of characters each pager could send or receive, and specified that usage exceedingRead MoreMarbury Versus Madison3744 Words   |  15 Pagesciting part of the Judiciary Act of 1789 as unconstitutional. 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Even the judiciary has also played vital role in interpreting the pro vision of Constitution asRead MoreThe United States Supreme Court2944 Words   |  12 PagesAcclaim for asserting the United States Supreme Court as a substantial participant in the American structure of government has been ascribed to the guidance of John Marshall as Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court from 1801 to 1835. By 1835, the Supreme Court had attained a level of equality with the prowess and prestige as that of Congress and the Executive that was not present before John Marshall was appointed to the position. Central to this development was the Court s adoption ofRead MoreShould Celebrities Have Their Right to Privacy?1557 Words   |  7 Pageschildrens’ rights to privacy. They are ordinary people just with a famous role in life. Historical/practical rights are one of the biggest issues and it all started back in colonial America. In colonial America, privacy was constrained. Colonial homes were often crowded, affording little privacy. There have been many events about privacy since 1639. In 1787, the U.S. Constitution was written declaring it does not contain an express right of privacy, in Article 1, Section 2, Paragraph 3, the ConstitutionRead MoreLegal Analysis of Indirect Expropriation Claim Under Korea-Us Fta3592 Words   |  15 PagesCOMPARISON: NAFTA AND U.S. TAKING JURISPRUDENCE†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 4 IV NEW TREATY TEXT: INDIRECT EXPROPRIATION UNDER KOR-US FTA....... 8 A. Textual improvements of KOR-US FTA indirect expropriation provisions†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦....8 B. Criteria determining whether an indirect expropriation has occurred†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦12 1. 2. Interference of the measure with reasonable investment-backed expectation..16 3. V Degree of interference with the property right†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..12 Character of governmental measures†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Read MorePolice and Entrapment Introduction2731 Words   |  11 Pagesof the United States over the last centuries. With the evolution of the constitution and other important amendments regarding human rights and the role of the law enforcement in keeping peace, entrapment has come under fierce criticism with the government keeping its ground that it is a necessity. The two main interpretive views of entrapment are the subjective and the objectives views, each of which is equally applied by jurisdictions and specific courts. 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The Holocaust And The Rwanda Genocide - 1629 Words

The mind of a survivor of genocide can be various, violent, confused, or blank, it can scar the mind indefinitely or not. Not only are the conductors of the kill-spree are scary, but even the victims can be just as terrifying. Two examples of genocide are the Holocaust and the Rwanda Genocide, both of which gives off long ranges of psychological effects on the mind of those who survive. Survivors struggle through the tragic events with the hope they would soon find and be with their loved ones. So how does a survivor survive the experience of genocide? Although survival is key during the event of a mass genocide, the experience victims go through can wreak havoc upon the mindset, go into depression or even sometimes to help them strive to a better future. The experience of a mass genocide can change a person, for the better or for the worse, many go under much stress, go through symptoms such as PTSD and become scarred mentally and/or physically. At the end of the Holocaust in World War II, survivors contained poor psychological well-being, mental scars for which they experience PTSD or post-traumatic symptoms. After having to go through the experience of genocide, survivors go through many phases, and mental and physical symptoms and PTSD is one of many symptoms survivors can go through. (Holocaust) (â€Å"Psychological Pain of Survivors†Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ par.8) â€Å"One way survivors coped with the prolonged horrors of the Holocaust was to sustain the hope of reuniting with their families.† AsShow MoreRelatedEssay on Holocaust and Rwanda Genocides787 Words   |  4 Pagestheir terrorizing reign of Germany and throughout Europe and the Hutus horrific acts of genocide that happened because of a culmination of deep ethnic tens ions brewing over a century and intense political corruption. Not only was it used to promote and endorse the party and its leaders extreme racist values but also to mask the horrifying truths of what was to become known as the Holocaust and the Rwanda Genocides. Anti-Jewish measures and pogroms have taken place numerous times throughout historyRead MoreEssay on Genocide: Examples of Rowanda and Germany885 Words   |  4 Pagesdefinition, genocide is the deliberate killing of a large group of people, especially those of a particular ethnic group or nation. The Rwandan Genocide was the 1994 mass killing of hundreds of thousands of Rwandas Tutsis and Hutu political moderates by the Hutu dominated government under the Hutu Power ideals. Hutus believed the Tutsi were taking their jobs, and that they were foreigners who had worn out their welcome (Genocide-Rwanda). In comparison to Germany, the largest genocide in history,Read MoreThe Terrible Acts of Rwandan Genocide1296 Words   |  6 PagesIn between 1930 and 1945, an event took place that changed the world in many ways. The Holocaust was a genocide that consisted of the decimation of one single race, the Jews. This solemn event is very similar (and also quite different) to another event tha t took place only four thousand miles away. Like the Holocaust, this event is was a genocide and it took place at Rwanda in 1994. This genocide was between the Hutus and Tutsis. These two groups have a long background with each other that consistedRead MoreThe Rwandan Genocide And The Genocide1637 Words   |  7 PagesRwandan genocide is undoubtedly one of the most sad and shocking examples of the lack of intervention by not only the US and the UN, but by other countries as well. The ongoing tensions between the Hutu, the largest population in Rwanda, and the Tutsi, the smaller and more elite population is what eventually lead to the Rwandan genocide. The killings began quickly after President Habyarimana s plane was shot down. After hundreds of thousands of deaths, the US did not intervene in Rwanda becauseRead MoreEssay about Democratic Republic of Congo Holocaust922 Words   |  4 Pages The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) Holocaust was the bloodiest war fought. This was due to the death toll, possibly larger than that of the Holocaust. Between 1998 and 2007, there were a total of 5.4 million people dead. The number of those deaths has definitely gone up over the years (Heaton 1). Genocide is very vital because of the people being slaughtered and giving their lives away in order to support their political stance. Everyone, whether it is through war or poverty, suffers from thisRead MoreGenocide : Genocide And Genocide1021 Words   |  5 Pages In Rwanda during 1994 Genocide happened between the Hutus and Tutsis. Hutus and Tutsis had disagreements on who will have power which effected the whole population of Rwanda. This leads to the question why there is Genocide in Rwanda? Genocide happened by two clans who caused mass causalities. Others did little to help which caused Genocide to happen in Rwanda. Sources disagree on the definition of genocide. According to American Heritage 4th edition â€Å"Genocide is the systematic and planned exterminationRead MoreRwanda Genocide : The First Conviction1264 Words   |  6 Pages Rwanda Genocide: The First Conviction Kaylee Schmit Ms. Sandbulte Advanced Composition January 11, 2016 Kaylee Schmit Ms. Sandbulte Advanced Composition January 11, 2016 Rwanda Genocide: The First Conviction Rwanda is a small country in Africa, made up of three ethnic groups: the Hutus, who held the majority of the population; the Tutsis were only a small portion of the population; and there were also very few Twa. All three groups spoke Kinyarwanda. There were differences in theRead MoreGlobal Genocides And The Holocaust1324 Words   |  6 PagesGlobal Genocides Understood by Sociology It is made known that before 1944, the term â€Å"genocide† did not exist. A Polish-Jewish lawyer named Raphael Lemkin wanted to describe the acts of the Nazi policies, in regards to the mass murders of the European Jews. Using the Greek word â€Å"geno-â€Å", meaning race or tribe, as well as the Latin word â€Å"-cide† for killing, he formed the word â€Å"genocide† (History.com Staff). According to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, the term holocaust means, â€Å"Any ofRead MoreThe Rwandan Genocide And The Genocide1654 Words   |  7 PagesRwandan Genocide A genocide is defined as the deliberate killing of a group of people, especially of a certain ethnicity. By that definition and almost any other a dictionary could define, the killing of the Tutsis was certainly a genocide.The Rwandan Genocide occurred in 1994, in an African country called Rwanda. A long history of building friction between the Hutus and the Tutsis undeniably caused the mass murder of over 800,000 Tutsis, but various countries’ failure to act allowed the genocide to goRead MoreThe Rwanda Genocide Essay1113 Words   |  5 Pagesthe characteristics of the Rwanda Genocide and the Jewish Holocaust. The Rwanda Genocide targeted the Tutsis because of their ethnicity, while the Holocaust targeted the Jews because of their ethnicity and religion. To really understand the Rwandan Genocide and the Final Solution, one must understand the background of the two exterminated peoples. The Tutsis are an ethnic group that resides in the African Great Lakes region. During the Europeans settlements in Rwanda, the colonists need an identifier

Vendor and Purchaser Law

Question: Discuss about the Vendor and Purchaser Law. Answer: Bakhos v Fenner Anor [2007] NSWSC 641 Issue According to the case study, the plaintiff has been alleged the defendant for the firing and damaging the property. Therefore now the issue has been found that whether the fondant is liable for the damage of the property? Relevant Legislation and Case Law According to the case study, the sustainable damages are not considered as damage until it makes any conflict with the rights of the buyer. Therefore when a risk is identified then it is important to prove the damages due to the negligence by the defendant towards the plaintiff. The sec- 66L of the Conveyancing Act 1999 defines the power to rescind where land substantially damaged. Therefore in this act, it is defined that when it is found that the land is found to be substantially damaged and it only granted after the making of a contract for the sale of any land. If any risk is found for the damages then it only applicable when the damage is passed due to the risks therefore the purchaser swill have the rights to rescind the said contract by servings in writing in between a particular time. This is a case between Tony Bakhos vs. Regula Fenner and Rolf Maximillian Fenner where the Supreme Court of New South Wales equity division has give the judgment about the claim of the plaintiff where they demanded damages caused from defendant and the section 66(L) of the Conveyancing Act 1999 provided such power to rescind where land substantially damaged. The issue of the case occurs when the property was damage due to the firing and later the court has found that the damage was minor and that land was not much substantially damaged. Under Section 55 (2A) of the Conveyancing Act 1999 defines the right of purchaser to recover the deposit amount. Therefore according to the contract if the parties has some specific performance which would not be enforced against the purchaser as per the order of the court and if any defect has been found due to the vendors title therefore the purchaser will not held liable to rescind the contract and he also has the power to recover the deposits or any other installments. It also provides the given due to the Purchase and relief from all the liability in this matter a contract also holds a stipulation including the purchaser from objective regarding the payment. Now when the fire is occurred in that property, the defendant also not present on that place. It has been found that it was unoccupied due to the fire. The damage caused according to the division 7 of part 4 of the Conveyancing Act 1999 and it defines according to the 66 (L) (I) where it has been mentioned that a purchaser has the powers on right to rescind the contract where the property is substantially damaged after making the contract. Analysis According to the case study the fact is the plaintiff who is the purchaser has make a contract to buy a house property buy a contract for sale of land with the vendor who is the defendant Ms Regula Fenner, and Mr Peter Voglsinger who are on the property owner as joint tenants. The purchase price was $1,400,000 where they have decided to payment the amount in installment which will helpful to not raise any difficulty. Therefore after some days of fire have been occured in that house property when the defendants were not present and it also found that the house was unoccupied due to the fire the house was damaged. When a residential property is damaged then the liability does not pass to the buyer until he make the completion of the before seller is found responsible for the property. If any damage occur but it would be different if the buyer take the position of the property early then the risk and the damaged all will be liable for the buyer. The substantial damage the buyer can resigned the contract within 20 days of time before there were about the damage and the buyer also have right to receive back the deposit amount and must released from any obligation under this contract. It is only not acceptable if any damage is caused due to some negligence by the buyer. In some cases if it is found the damage are substantial and still the buyer want to proceed with the contract purchasing. Then buyer has no right to forced to perform the contract if it is found in equitable to complete the selling. Now in this case due to the fire of the property smoke damaged, the windows have been settled and th e carpets are burn and two shillings was again affected by the Firefighter. Therefore it is also found that it has not been that substantial damage where the buyers can has rights to resign the purchasing contract for the repudiation of the contract and the seller was also bound to entitle to retain the deposit amount. Conclusion In this case the court has given the decisions that the defendant must give back the damage amount to the buyer because the property damage was not defined as a substantially damaged according to the Conveyancing Act 1999. Urban House v Purnell Bros [2007] NSWSC 1248 Issue According to the case study the issue is whether Urban House and SCL is liable to provide the notice or they have any power to have relief against forfeiture of that deposit amount according to the substantially damage? Relevant Legislation and Case Law The section 66 (L) of Conveyancing Act 1999[1] defines are the signed contract for sale of land which provide the power related to the property where the substantially damage is occur between the contract and there settlement[2]. Therefore land is substantially became damage after the formation of the contract then the damages regarding the risk all passes to the purchaser where it must written to the contract by providing notice in writing and send it to vendor before the completion of the transferred the property to the purchaser[3]. The section 66(K) of Conveyancing Act 1999 defines the times where the damage is occur on the land which is passed to the purchaser and it will not has been transferred until the completion of the sale according to the stipulated time of the contract and the position by the purchaser[4]. The section 66(L) of Conveyancing Act 1999 is defines and described with the contrasted with section 66(M) of Conveyancing Act 1999. Therefore it defines that when the property is damaged after the contract of the sell and before the damage has been transferred to the purchaser then the purchase price can be reduced according to the equitable in the situation. In this matter the provisions is defined whether the property is substantially damaged or not. In this case Urban House and SCL both have purchased the land and after the fire it damage substantially the property[5]. In the passing of raised between the vendor and purchaser of the land is only occur when the law relating insurance or compensation which is been detected due to the damage or any destruction of improvements and the other property on land is being selected for the contract for the sale[6]. Then it will found the raised or the damage of the destruction has been occur between the vendor and purchaser. The terms also included when the benefit of an insurance policy will be issued for the vendor by the purchaser. Therefore when the process has been occur by the insurance policy held by the vendor of the purchaser it should be applied according to the compensation and as per the consequences of the case[7]. In the case of Needham J in Shadlow Anor v Skiadopolous Anor (1988) it has been found that the Conveyancing Act 1999 section 66(m) has made the coordinates with the respect of section 66(a) regarding the substantial damage of the property where the purchaser was not bound to take the responsibilities about the damaged property[8]. Analysis The fact of the case is the plaintiff Urban house Private Limited and SCL Holding Private Limited has purchased a land in a exchange contract from the defendant Purnell Bros Private Limited the purchased property is used for a car service and a service station. However the settlement has been made but due to fire the building was damaged Where are Urban house Private Limited and SCL Holding Private Limited has send a notice for rescission of the contract according to the section 66(l) Conveyancing Act 1999[9] to the defendant Purnell Bros Private Limited for the termination due to the failure of the contract[10]. Into the contract the plaintiffs has been paid $600,000 and they didnt get back the money. Therefore the court proceeding has been made buy them whether they will be get back the money or they are entitled to relieve against any four features of the deposit. Therefore it can be stated that is according to the section 66(a) of the Conveyancing Act 1999[11]. The contract would be unjust or in equitable according to the requirement of the seller when he is bound to complete the sale of land and along with that is that land substantially damaged after the formation of the contract and before the risk has occurred on the damaged which is passes to the purchaser then in that matter[12]. The court has right to refuse the enforcement against the seller for that specific performance of the contract. The order of the repayment of the given money by the purchaser according to the contract and make that ordered as appropriate payment according to the Section 66 of the Conveyancing Act 1999 in th en the court will refuse the enforcement[13]. Therefore the fire has damaged the building and due to the risk of the property it is required to restore the damage part and here it has established the relation to the proportionally of the amount which is involved with the purchase price of the land. The plaintiff has reported that day has been validly rescinding the contract. Therefore the due to the Fire it burn out the land matter really different from that which price has contacted to buy. In that circumstances due to the fire is rendered the building on the land and tenantable therefore they are required to get back there amount. The damage was in substitution for a number of reasons[14]. As because the plaintiffs have intention to make a large development and demolition of the improvement on the land where it does not mean the release of the building is prior to demolish[15]. It is also found that when the contract has been made and until the termination of the contract a property was disused therefore neither of the party h as appeared greatly or they do not have any concern about the possibility of the damage to the structure until the fire has damage the portion of the property[16]. Conclusion In this case studies the substantial damage has been found by the defendant and therefore he is bound to pay the damage amount to the plaintiff and the according to the Section 55 of the Conveyancing Act 1999 the purchaser was being entitled to relief from any forth features and the cross claimed has been failed because the substantial damage has been found where the defendant is bound to pay the damages[17]. Reference Abbey, Robert, and Mark Richards. A practical approach to conveyancing. Oxford University Press, 2017. Bakhos v Fenner Anor [2007] NSWSC 641 Beazley, Margaret. "Judgment writing in final and intermediate courts of appeal." Judicial Officers Bulletin 27.9 (2015): 79. Bray, Judith. Unlocking land law. Routledge, 2016. Needham J in Shadlow Anor v Skiadopolous Anor (1988) NSW ConvR 55-383 Urban House v Purnell Bros [2007] NSWSC 1248 Veitch, Edward. "When the Court Finds a Breach of Fiduciary Obligations, Should Equitable or Legal Remedies Flow." UNBLJ 66 (2015): 200. [1] Abbey, Robert, and Mark Richards. A practical approach to conveyancing. Oxford University Press, 2017. [2] Veitch, Edward. "When the Court Finds a Breach of Fiduciary Obligations, Should Equitable or Legal Remedies Flow." UNBLJ 66 (2015): 200. [3] Beazley, Margaret. "Judgment writing in final and intermediate courts of appeal." Judicial Officers Bulletin 27.9 (2015): 79. [4] Bray, Judith. Unlocking land law. Routledge, 2016. [5] Beazley, Margaret. "Judgment writing in final and intermediate courts of appeal." Judicial Officers Bulletin 27.9 (2015): 79. [6] Veitch, Edward. "When the Court Finds a Breach of Fiduciary Obligations, Should Equitable or Legal Remedies Flow." UNBLJ 66 (2015): 200. [7] Abbey, Robert, and Mark Richards. A practical approach to conveyancing. Oxford University Press, 2017. [8] Bray, Judith. Unlocking land law. Routledge, 2016. [9] Beazley, Margaret. "Judgment writing in final and intermediate courts of appeal." Judicial Officers Bulletin 27.9 (2015): 79. [10] Abbey, Robert, and Mark Richards. A practical approach to conveyancing. Oxford University Press, 2017. [11] Abbey, Robert, and Mark Richards. A practical approach to conveyancing. Oxford University Press, 2017. [12] Veitch, Edward. "When the Court Finds a Breach of Fiduciary Obligations, Should Equitable or Legal Remedies Flow." UNBLJ 66 (2015): 200. [13] Bray, Judith. Unlocking land law. Routledge, 2016. [14] Beazley, Margaret. "Judgment writing in final and intermediate courts of appeal." Judicial Officers Bulletin 27.9 (2015): 79. [15] Veitch, Edward. "When the Court Finds a Breach of Fiduciary Obligations, Should Equitable or Legal Remedies Flow." UNBLJ 66 (2015): 200. [16] Bray, Judith. Unlocking land law. Routledge, 2016. [17] Abbey, Robert, and Mark Richards. A practical approach to conveyancing. Oxford University Press, 2017.

Market Structures and Pricing Strategies

Abstract A market structure is a tool used to determine the pricing power of certain products in diverse firms. Research has shown that there are numerous market structures with unique pricing strategies in place. The price of goods and services in a firm depend on the levels of demand, cost conditions and competition.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Market Structures and Pricing Strategies specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Besides, price fixation is one of the key managerial functions. It is frequently reviewed to ensure that a firm makes a reasonable profit margin. The market conditions determine the type of market structure and pricing criteria to be used in a particular firm. Moreover, businesses cannot operate in isolation. In other words, a firm requires a robust marketing platform for it to operate effectively. Hence, it is important to select an appropriate market structure for a business to make significant returns. Economists have identified four major market structures that are unique in terms of both operation and effectiveness in meeting the demands of customer. The market structures have been discussed in this paper in relation to pricing strategies. Introduction A market structure can be defined as a core characteristic that makes up a platform for buying and selling goods and services (Samuelson Marks, 2006). It is common knowledge that a market exists when there are buyers, sellers, products, competition, product differentiation as well as the ease of entry or exit. From this definition, Rubin and Dnes (2010) highlight that market structures are individual aspects that influence the behavior of buyers and sellers. Ellickson, Misra and Nair (2012) also define a market structure as the number of firms in a market that are able to produce similar goods or services. The nature of a market structure greatly influences the behavior of producers. Therefore, it affects the market price of a particular commodity or service (Rubin Dnes, 2010). In addition, a market environment affects the supply of commodities and equally creates barriers for entry. This paper discusses some of the notable market structure by analyzing their pricing strategies alongside relevant examples. Perfect Competition Description This describes a situation whereby a firm does not have a particular independent pricing policy. Therefore, firms that embrace this market structure have to comply with the prevailing market prices (Samuelson Marks, 2006). At this point, a firm is at liberty to market its goods and services.Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Lack of control over a market often creates an open platform for buyers to choose less costly products. If a firm sets very high prices in a marketplace, it might end up making few or no sale at all.†¨It is imp ortant to note that in this type of a market structure, there is no specified price for certain quality or quantity of goods (Rubin Dnes, 2010). Therefore, it is upon the seller to decide which quantity to offer and at what price. Typical firms have no influence over demand and supply because new sellers enter the market as they wish. Ellickson et al (2012) assert that typical competitors in such a market end up earning no profit at all. Rubin and Dnes (2010) point out that there are no barriers to enter or exit such a market structure since there are unlimited number of both sellers and buyers. From an economic perspective, this market structure exists when firms produce similar and standardized products. It implies that different firms only compete for prices. Moreover, buyers are aware that price competition exists. Therefore, all the available products must be sold at a common or poplar market price (Rubin Dnes, 2010). Both consumers and firms also tend to countercheck the pri ce even though they have no direct influence on the market. In order for a firm to maintain its customers, it is compelled to sell either at the prevailing market price or at a lower price altogether (Samuelson Marks, 2006). Therefore, firms end up selling a small proportion of their total output. Pricing Strategies Prices are determined by the forces of supply and demand. It is worth to note that there is perfect substitution where all firms produce homogenous, standardized and undifferentiated products. At this point, the demand curve in each firm is perfectly elastic and horizontal to the price line (Rubin Dnes, 2010). This implies that a firm can only sell some of its output without altering the price. Any slight increase in price results into lack of sales since buyers tend to resort to a substitute from other competitors. In this type of a market structure, the â€Å"law of one price† does not change and all market transactions are done at the same price (Samuelson M arks, 2006). Monopolistic competition Description In this type of a market structure, a firm ignores a market price and sets it own pricing without considering the causal effects of other firms with different prices. In this case, a group of producers offer a common product that is not identical. Therefore, it triggers competition.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Market Structures and Pricing Strategies specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Firms deliberately differentiate their products and set prices that are competitive in nature (Samuelson Marks, 2006). It is important to note that there are no market barriers. Monopolistic competition resembles a perfect competition model except that the products of the former are different. Pricing Strategies Firms set their own prices that are different from those of competitors since products sold are also differentiated in terms of quality and quantity. In this cas e, firms aim to create brand names by reinforcing product differences (Rubin Dnes, 2010). Product differentiation is one of the strategies that enable producers to set high prices without necessarily losing market dominance to competitors. It is worth to note that the demand is elastic hence; firms can increase their prices whenever they wish to do so (Samuelson Marks, 2006). Oligopoly Description In this case, about three sellers occupy a larger share in a particular market. The firms may experience price wars as they compete against each other for maximum gains. Increasing prices affects the volume of sales of other firms (Ellickson et al., 2012). For instance, when one of the competing firms increases its market prices, consumers will obviously buy from the competitors. Therefore, producers must assess the impacts of their decisions in order to decrease or increase prices. It is worth to note that few sellers in the market may be rivals. This may eventually lead to conflict (Sa muelson Marks, 2006). However, there is great ease of entry into the market unlike the case with a monopolistic structure. Pricing Strategies Sellers first understand the behavior of consumers before setting prices. The pricing policy of an individual producer affects others. Therefore, there is an element of price rigidity that compels producers to opt for non-price competition (Samuelson Marks, 2006). At this point, prices are no longer depicted by demand and supply. Prices are set after critical, interactive and strategic thinking (Samuelson Marks, 2006). The fate of oligopoly pricing strategy is interdependent even though it is determined by economic factors such as consumers’ tastes and preferences.Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Monopoly Description This refers to a market structure whereby there is only one seller of a particular product. In other words, a single firm in the market offers goods or services to consumers. Nonetheless, pure monopolies are rare. From the statistical review of literature, it is evident that a monopolistic market generates approximately 3% of the gross domestic product (GDP) in the developed economies such as the US and UK (Samuelson Marks, 2006). Hence, monopoly exists when 90% of the market is dominated by a single firm. Rubin and Dnes (2010) elucidate that barriers to market entry are common in this type of market structure. This is a precondition that is deliberately set to prevent other firms from venturing into the market (Rubin Dnes, 2010). Furthermore, there are no perfect substitutes. Consumers have no choices to make since they have to buy products available in the market. Pricing Strategies Prices of goods and services are determined by single players in this type o f a market structure. Most monopolists use trial and error method when pricing their products. Ellickson et al (2012) argue that monopolists also determine prices by balances profits and losses. When a firm reaches an equilibrium point where marginal costs are in the same level with marginal returns, monopolists decide their best market price (Samuelson Marks, 2006). Usually, monopolists set higher prices that generate maximum gains. However, a firm may differentiate prices for various buyers in diverse regions. The price differentiation approach depends on the elasticity of demand. Dumping is also a pricing strategy used by monopolists (Rubin Dnes, 2010). In this regard, products fetch higher prices at the domestic market than in the international platform. However, monopolists do not just escalate prices. In other words, the optimal price is influenced by demand (Ellickson et al., 2012). Case Study with examples In the last few years, intense competition has been witnessed among telecommunication companies that supply cables, satellites and other communication services. Broadcasting networks have also exercised perfect competition for several decades. Internet service providers and social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram and Google plus have thrived in perfect competition (Samuelson Marks, 2006). This has greatly encouraged other service providers to venture into the market.  Besides, firms that produce and sell foodstuffs such as fast food restaurants and supermarket outlets exercise monopolistic competition. These sellers produce diverse brands that appeal to the larger market niche (Samuelson Marks, 2006). The deregulation of products’ varieties and discounts gives clients the freedom to purchase goods or services that they can afford.  In the United States, there are limited number of organizations that offer similar services and products. For instance, the Airbus and Boeing companies are renowned aircraft companies tha t compete against each other (Samuelson Marks, 2006). There are also hybrid automobiles that compete with traditional gasoline-powered automobiles. World-renowned soft drink companies such as Coca Cola and Pespi compete through pricing strategies thereby making the market to be oligopolistic in nature (Samuelson Marks, 2006). Some countries such as the US and India give firms and business people exclusive rights to sell their inventions for a specified period. Therefore, some firms have patents that grant them authority to sell their products for a period of 10 years (Samuelson Marks, 2006). This prevents other people from copying, processing or applying such ideas. A good example is the Microsoft Company that deals with computer software. It spearheads monopoly by preventing the entry of other compute software companies into the market (Samuelson Marks, 2006). Governments have been known to allow lawful monopolies for a given length of time. Conclusion From the above discussion , it is explicit that a market environment influences pricing strategies. There are four major market structures. These market structures have diverse attributes such as the degree of barrier to market access, the extent to which a firm controls the price, and the number of sellers. In monopolistic and perfect competition, there are numerous sellers hence there is no entry barrier into the market. Therefore, producers set prices that are influenced by elasticity of demand. In oligopoly, there are a few sellers competing against each other and prices are determined by other economic factors apart from demand and supply. There are significant but less prohibitive market barriers and price rigidity in oligopolistic markets. Contrastingly, a monopoly has a single firm supplying and determining the price of products in a market. There are numerous barriers that prevent other potential sellers from entering a monopolistic market. References Ellickson, P. B., Misra, S., Nair, H. S. (2012) . Repositioning Dynamics and Pricing Strategy. Journal of Marketing Research (JMR), 49(6), 750-772. Rubin, P. H., Dnes, A. W. (2010). Managerial economics: a forward looking assessment. Managerial Decision Economics, 31(8), 497-501. Samuelson, W., Marks, S. G. (2006). Managerial economics. Boston: John Wiley Sons, Inc. 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